Gen info
• Rubiaceae is a family of flowering plants, commonly known as coffee, madder, or bedstraw family, consisting of terrestrial trees, shrubs, lianas, or herbs. The family contains 14,200 species in about 615 genera, the 4th largest angiosperm family by number of species.
-
Taxonomy: The name Rubiaceae (nomen conservandum) was published in 1789 by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu.
- Oldenlandia is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. It is pantropical in distribution with about 240 species. Some of the species were placed in the broadly defined Hedyotis, but more recent circumscription of Hedyotis narrowed it down to a monophyletic group of about 115 species, which no longer included Oldenlandia.
- Etymology: The genus name Oldenlandia was named by Linnaeus in 1753 in Species Plantarum, and honors the Danish botanist Henrik Bernard Oldenland (c. 1663-1697).
 Botany
• Malaulasiman is a slender, erect or spreading, sparsely branched, annual herb, 20 to 50 centimeters in length. Leaves are stalkless, linear-oblanceolate to linear-oblong, and 1.5 to 3 centimeters long. Flowers occur in axillary, peduncled, 2- to 5-flowered umbels, with slender peduncles which are 5 to 10 millimeters long; the pedicels are half as long or less; and solitary flowers are often intermixed. Corolla is small and white. Capsules are shaped like a top, about 2 millimeters long, and do not protrude beyond the short, acuminate, calyx-lobes.
• An annual herb with ascending or erect stems which are 4-angled. Leaves are oppositely arranged, sessile or subsessile, elliptic to linear-elliptic in shape, 1.5 to 2.5 cm (0.6 to 1 inch) in length, 4 to 7 mm (0.15 to 0l.3 inches) in width. Seeds are brown, 0.2 mm long. (38)
Note:
This plant closely resembles H. diffusa, differentiated mainly by the
2- to 7-flowered inflorescence (in H. diffusa, there is only 1 flower
subtended per pedicel) and moreover, by the longer pedicel.
Distribution
- Naturalized. (12)
- Per POWO, native to the Philippines.
(22)
-
Found throughout the Philippines,
common in and about towns, gardens, in open waste places, grasslands,
etc.
- Also native to Andaman Is., Angola, Assam, Bangladesh, Benin, Borneo, Botswana, Burkina, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, China South-Central, China Southeast, Congo, DR Congo, East Himalaya, Egypt, Eritrea, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Gulf of Guinea Is., Hainan, India, Ivory Coast, Jawa, Kenya, Korea, KwaZulu-Natal, Laccadive Is., Lebanon-Syria, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaya, Maldives, Mali, Mauritius, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, New Guinea, Nicobar Is., Nigeria, Northern Provinces, Ogasawara-shoto, Oman, Rwanda, Réunion, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Socotra, Somalia, South China Sea, Sri Lanka, Sudan-South Sudan, Sulawesi, Sumatera, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Togo, Uganda, Vietnam, West Himalaya, Zambia, Zimbabwe. (22)
 Properties
• The pharmacological properties
of this species is fundamentally identical with that of H. diffusa,
however, with reference to its anticancer actions, H. diffusa (Ulasiman
kalat) is regarded as a more powerful drug than H. corymbosa.
• Considered cooling, febrifuge, pectoral, digestive, diuretic, depurative, diaphoretic, stomachic, and vermifuge.
• Studies have shown antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-malarial, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, radioprotective, antipyretic, analgesic , enzzyme inhibitory, anticancer, anthelmintic, diuretic properties.
Constituents
• Thai study of whole plants isolated ten compounds, elucidated as: geniposide, 6a-hydroxygeniposide, scandoside methyl ester (6β-hydroxygeniposide), asperulosidic acid, deacetylasperuloside, asperuloside, 10-O-benzoylscandoside methyl ester, 10-O-p-hydroxybenzoylscandoside methyl ester, (+)-lyoniresinol-3α-O-β-glucopyranoside, and rutin. (4)
• Study isolated three new iridoid glycosides, nine iridoid and lignan glucosides and rutin.
• Study of alcoholic extract yielded alkaloids, carbohydrates, saponins, tannins, chlorogenic acid, steroidal glycosides, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and coumarin. (18)
 • Phytochemical analysis yielded 29.53 ± 0.15% carbohydrate content, 3.65 ± 0.18 % protein content, 23.90 ± 0.14 % crude fiber, 0.09 ± 0.15 gm ash content, 47.5 ± i.09 mg/100g ascorbic acid content, 32.68 ± 0.39 µgGAE/mg total phenol content, 129.28 ± 1.59 µg/ml inhibition concentration (IC50). (see study below) (27)
- Study for essential oil yielded 32 components with 2 alcohols, 8 alkenes, 4 ketones, 1 aldehyde, 6 acid substances, 6 esters, and 5 other substances. Major constituents in the oil were Hexadecanoic acid (64.93%) followed by Linolenic acid (7.62%), and Linoleic
acid (3.73%). (29)
- Study of aerial parts isolated nine iridoid glucoside derivatives. Spectroscopic investigation identified five known compounds: deacetyl asperuloside, asperuloside, asperulosidic acid, deacety asperulosidic acid,
and scandoside methyl ester. (30)
- Study of whole plants isolated 10 compounds, elucidated as geniposide, 6α-hydroxygeniposide, scandoside methyl ester (6β-hydroxygeniposide), asperulosidic acid, deacetylasperuloside, asperuloside, 10-O-benzoylscandoside methyl ester, 10-O-p-hydroxybenzoylscandoside methyl ester, (+)-lyoniresinol-3α-O-β-glucopyranoside, and rutin. (42)
- Proximate analysis (%) of leaf, stem and root yielded: moisture content 10.28, 6.87. 7.95; ash 12.83, 6.43, 4.79; crude fiber 18.58, 19.77, 16.76; fat 2.61, 2.96, 1.79; crude protein 13.87, 7.42, 6.31; carbohydrate 31.97, 57.47, 62.40. (43)
- Quantitative phytochemical composition (%) of leaf, stem, and root yielded:
alkaloids 1.72, 1.68, 1.23; tannin 3.16, 1.05, 2.53; saponin 0.64, 0.93, 0.80; sterol 0.81, 0.076, 0.084; phenol 0.16, 0.24, 0.12; hydrogen cyanide mg/kg 2.29, 1.38, 1.45; anthraquinone 2.78, 1.34, 1.85; flavonoid 1.25, 0.94, 0.91; terpenoid 0.26, 0.21, 0.15. (43)
- Phytochemical screening of O. corymbosa 70% ethanolic extract of leaves revealed polyphenols, flavonoids, carbohydrate, reducing sugars, tannins, anthocyanins, and proteins, with absence of cardiac glycosides, quinones, and alkaloids. (see study below) (49)
 Uses
Edibility / Nutrition
• Tender young leaves and stems are edible.
• Ash from burnt leaves and stems are mixed with water, filtered, and resultant water use as tenderizer when cooking other vegetables. (23)
• Rich source of vitamin C.
Folkloric
• Decoction of plant used for
fevers and stomach aches.
• A cooling medicine used in remittent fevers with gastric irritability and nervous depression caused by deranged air and bile. Entire plant prescribed in decoction, and combined with aromatics.
• Decoction applied to the surface of the body and given internally to cure heat eruptions.
• Used for jaundice and diseases of the liver.
• In Konkan, juice is applied for burning of the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. For burning at the pit of the stomach, the juice is taken with a little milk and sugar.
• In Martinique,
tincture of roots used as vermifuge.
• In the Antiles,
used as a vermifuge.
• In India, plant
juice mixed with sugar and milk for stomach burning.
• In India,
used for jaundice and liver problems, giddiness, dyspepsia, flatulence, colic, constipation,helminthiasis, leprosy, bronchitis.
• In Malaysia,
poultice of leaves used for sore eyes and wounds.
• In the Congo,
used for facilitation of childbirth.
• In Chinese medicine used for viral infections, cancer, acne, boils, appendicitis, hepatitis, eye problems and bleeding. Leaves and roots used to improve circulation and treat inflammation. Roots used as anthelmintic.
• Used as mouthwash for toothaches.
• In Myanmar, used as diuretic and stomachic, and for treatment of jaundice. (51)
- In Thailand, decoction of whole plant used
Others
• Dye: Roots yield a green dye, gerancine, after treatment with mordant. (23)
Studies
• Hepatoprotective / Paracetamol Induced Toxicity: Study on the effect
of methanolic extract of HC against paracetamol overdose-induced liver
damage in Wistar rats showed significant hepatoprotective effects evidenced by decreased enzyme activities and an almost normal histological architecture. (1)
• Antimicrobial: Screening
method for the identification of plants possessing anti-microbial activity
and tolerance to abiotic stresses: In a study of 50 species,
Datura metel and Oldenlandia corymbosa exhibited the highest antimicrobial
activity. (3) Study of a methanol extract of Oldenlandia corymbosa showed antimicrobial activity against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria. (18)
• Anti-Malarial: Study of A paniculata and Hedyotis corymbosa, both known for their hepatoprotective and fever-reducing abilities, showed inhibitory activity in the ring stage of the parasite without in vivo toxicity, with increased in vivo potency when used in combination and with curcumin. (5)
• Immunocompetent Activity: Study showed prior administration of J corymbosa and H diffusa ameliorated the leukopenia and splenic cellular decrease associated with sublethal irradiation. (6)
• Oxytocic Activity / Antimicrobial: O affinis is one of many plants used in the Congo and Central Africa regions for the facilitation of childbirth. Study isolated uterotonic substances - cyclic peptides (kalata-peptides) and a main peptide, B1. The kalata-peptide B1 have also shown to hold antimicrobial activity and presents a potential for the design of new peptide antibiotics. (7)
• Ascorbic Acid Content: Study of fresh and dried leaves of two edible plants - O corymbosa and D rotundifolia - found them to be rich sources of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) when compared to some common garden fruits and vegetables, more in the fresh than in the dried leaves. (8)
• Antioxidant / Radical Scavenging Activities: (1) Study on the antioxidant and radical scavenging activities of three traditional Chinese medicines – HD (H. diffusa), HC (Hedyotis corymbosa) and MP (M. pentaphylla), showed HD had the strongest inhibition of lipid peroxidation, followed by HC, while H corymbosa had the highest radical scavenging activity. The differences may explain the variation in therapeutic properties when the herbal medicines are used interchangeably in medicinal preparations. (2) Study showed marked antioxidant activity of the HC extract, attributed to the presence of total phenolic and total flavonoid contents. (10)
• Peh-Hue-Juwa-Chi-Cao / Anti-Tumor / Radioprotective Activity: A study was done on three different crude drugs that take the same name (Peh-Hue-Juwa-Chi-Chao) as an antitumor agent and evaluated for its antitumor activity against malignant implanted subcutaneous tumors and protective effect against radiation-induced hematopoeitic damage. Results showed the three kinds of Peh-Hue-Juwa-Chi-Cao drugs all showed similar antitumor effects and protection from radiation damage. (11)
• Hepatoprotective / CCl4-Hepatotoxicity: Study of ethanolic extract in albino rats showed significant reduction of SGOT and SGPT in CCl4 induced hepatotoxicity. (15)
• Antipyretic: Study evaluated various extracts of H. corymbosa on yeast induced pyrexia model in albino rats. Most of the test extracts, except for petroleum ether, showed significant antipyretic activity. Results showed potential usefulness in the treatment of fever. (16)
• Antihepatotoxic / D-galactosamine Induced Hepatopathy: Study showed the hepatoprotective potential of methanolic extract against D-galactosamine induced hepatopathy in experimental animals showed significant dose dependent prevention of chemically induced increase in liver enzymes. (17)
• Analgesic / Whole Plant: Study evaluated an ethanol extract of whole plant dried powder for analgesic activity using hot plate test, acetic acid induced writhing, and formalin test. Results showed significant dose-dependent analgesic effect mediated by both central and peripheral mechanisms. Standard drug for comparison was ketorolac. (19)
• Tumor Inhibition: Study evaluated the key components exhibiting anti-tumor activities in the two herbs, Hedyotis corymbosa and H. diffusa using plant components ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, and geniposidic acid. Results showed ursolic acid and oleanolic acid to inhibit the growth of cultured hep-2B cells and enlargement of subcutaneous tumor. (20)
• Anti-Inflammatory / Hepatoprotective / Peh-Hue-Juwa-Chi-Cao: Study in rats evaluated Peh-Hue-Juwa-Chi-Cao, containing extracts of Hedyotis diffusa, H. corymbosa or Mollugo pentaphylla. Results showed all three possess anti-inflammatory activity and hepatoprotective properties, reducing acute elevation of SGOT and SGPT after intraperitoneal administration of hepatotoxins. (21)
• Cytotoxicity / Asperuloside / Anticancer: An ethanol extract and methylene chloride fraction showed potential anticancer activity with growth inhibitory activity to human YMB-1 breast cancer cell line with IC50 of 6.51 µg/mL and 2.75 µg/mL, respectively. Study isolated a lead compound asperuloside with high biological activity and growth inhibition against YMB-1 and HL60 cell line with IC50 of 0.7 and 11.0 µg/mL. (24)
• Anticarcinogenic / Antioxidant / Combined Extracts of Soursop and Pearl Grass: Study evaluated the effects of combined extracts of soursop (Annona muricata) and pearl grass (Hedyotis corymbosa). Results of the combination of ethanol extract of soursop and pearl grass showed potential anticarcinogenic properties which increased with increment of doses. The anticarcinogenic properties could be due to their high antioxidant activities. (25)
• Anti-Malarial / Combined Extracts of A. paniculata and H. corymbosa / Curcumin: Study evaluated methanolic extracts of Andrographis paniculata and Hedyotis corymbosa alone and in combination and individually with curcumin. Results showed combination of the two herbal drugs showed substantial enhancement in their anti-malarial activity. Combination of each with curcumin also revealed synergistic anti-malarial effect. Both extracts inhibited the ring stage of the parasite and did not show any in vivo toxicity when used alone or in combination. (26)
• Antioxidant: Study evaluated the phytoconstituents and antioxidant activity of Oldenlandia corymbosa using DPPH assay for free radical scavenging activity. Methanolic extract showed significant antioxidant activity with IC50 value of 129.28 ± 1.59 µg/ml. (see constituents above) (27)
• Anticancer
/ Human Leukemia Cancer Cell Line / Leaves: Study evaluated the anticancer activity of ethanolic extract of leaves of Oldenlandia corymbosa and P. hysterophorus on K562 human leukemia cancer cell line by SRB assay. Results showed significant anticancer activity individually and in combination. (28)
• α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Activity / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated the in vitro α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of ethanolic extract of aerial parts of Oldenlandia corymbosa. Results showed a 90% reduction in α-glucosidase activity and a potential as an antidiabetic agent. (31)
•
Cytotoxicity Against Breast Cancer Cells / Leaves: Study evaluated the cytotoxicity of soursop (Annona muricata) leaves and pearl grass (Hedyotis corymbosa) on hormone-dependent human breast carcinoma (MCF-7) cell line. The ethanolic pearl grass extract showed IC50 values of 66.011 µg/m and 52329 µg/ml on 24- and 48-hour incubation, respectively. (32)
• Antidepressant: Study evaluated the antidepressant activity of methanolic extract H. corymbosa whole plant in olfactory bulbectomy rats. MHC reversed the OBX (olfactory bulbectomy)-induced alterations in behavioral and biochemical parameters in rats. Treatment also prevented OBX-induced decline of brain levels of serotonin and nor-adrenaline in dose-dependent manner. (33)
•
Anti-Inflammatory / Antiarthritic Effect: Study evaluated the effects of 70% ethanolic extract of pearl grass on the immune system of osteoarthritis rat model on measures of number of leukocytes and lymphocytes and joint histology in Sprague-Dawley rats. Results showed all doses of pearl grass exhibited an anti-inflammatory effect and significantly decreased the number of leucocytes and lymphocytes and prevented proteoglycan degradation. (34)
• Anticancer / Inhibition of Migration and MMP-9 on Metastatic Breast Cancer Cells: Study of an ethanolic extract of H. corymbosa showed anticancer properties by inhibition of migration and metastasis towards breast cancer cells. Cytotoxic activity showed an IC50 of 400 µg/ml. (35)
• Antioxidant / Anti-Inflammatory / Enzyme-Inhibitory / Antibacterial / Whole Plant: Study of whole plant ethanolic extract showed total phenolics and flavonoids of 19.01 mg GAE/g, An aqueous extract showed notable α-amylase inhibitory effect while a petroleum ether extract showed good inhibition against α-glucosidase enzyme. Extract showed antioxidant potential with IC50 of 40.72 µg/mL. A petro-leum ether extract showed good antibiotic potency in low concentrations with MIC ofd 56.25 µg/mL. (39)
• Antibacterial / Antioxidant / Antitumor / Aerial Parts and Roots: Methanol extract of both aerial parts and roots of O. corymbosa showed significant antibacterial activity against pathogenic organisms Salmonella typhoid, Colostrum botulinus, Marsiella pneumonia, and Vibrio cholera. Root and aerial parts extracts showed excellent antioxidant activity with IC50s of 0.49 mg/ml and 0.24 mg/ml respectively. ME of aerial parts showed inhibitory activity to human MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines with IC50 of 0.67 mg/ml. (40)
• Anti neoplastic / Antioxidant / Leaves: Study evaluated a methanol extract of O. corroboratory leaves for antioxidant and anti neoplastic properties. The ME was rich in phenolic compounds, flavoring, flavoring, and polyisocyanates. In in-vitro antioxidant assay, the ME exhibited significant ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging activity with IC50s of 98.07 and 1151.21 g/ml respectively. In anti neoplastic study, the ME showed dose-dependent reduction in viable EAC (Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma) cell count. The ME increased mean survival time and life span of EAC-bearing mice. Results suggest potential as good source of antioxidants and antineoplastic agents. (41)
• Cytogenetic Assessment of Aerial Extract: Study evaluated the cytotoxic and cytogenetic potential of O. corymbosa ethanolic aerial extract using Allium cepa assay. Root tips of A cepa were treated with OCEE at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 mg/ml for 48 hours. Results showed the mitotic index was significantly reduced (p<0.05) in lower doses, with lowest at 1 mg/ml (MI=8.50) compared to control (MI=9.40). Extract elicited chromosomal aberrations in all groups, indicative of mutagenic and cytogenetic potential. Results suggest the OECC exerted cytotoxic, antiproliferative, and cytogenetic effect eliciting chromosomal aberrations in A. cepa root meristematic cells. Results provide insight on use of OCEE in ethnomedicinal management of cancer. (44)
• Analgesic / Aerial Parts: Study evaluated the toxicity and analgesic effect of ethanolic extract of O. corymbosa aerial parts using animal models. Analgesic activity was assessed using acetic acid-induced writhing and formalin-induced paw-licking tests in mice. Acute toxicity evaluation showed LD50 of 20g/kbw, with no death recorded within range of 5 to 20 g/kbw. Histopathological exam showed hepato-toxicity at highest dose of 20 g/kg with total recovery 14 days post treatment. In FIPL, extract showed significant (p<0.05) dose-dependent inhibition of nociceptive responses in early phase, better than standard drug morphine, with 39.39% inhibition at highest dose (400 mg/kg) compared to morphine at 60.61% inhibition. Results suggest the ethanol extract of aerial part is safe for use, exerting both central and peripheral mechanisms of antinociception at oral dose of 400 mg/;kbw. (45)
• Hypoglycemic / Hypolipidemic / Whole Plant: Study evaluated an aqueous extract of O. corymbosa whole plant (except roots) for antioxidant, hypolipidemic, and hypoglycemic potential in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Extract in doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg were administered daily by gavage. Phytochemical screening showed presence of tannins, saponins, phlobatannins, and flavonoids. Total phenolic content was 22.85 mg/g with IC509 of 450 µg/mL and total flavonoids of 4.25 mg/g extract. Results showed lowering of blood glucose and lipid parameters except for HDL. Pretreatment increased antioxidant enzymes CAT and GSH along with decrease LPO level. Results suggest potential as hypoglycemic and antihyperlipidemic agent. (46)
• Biosynthesis and Action of Anticancer Metabolites / Ursolic Acid: In a screening of 11 Oldenlandia plants with potent anticancer activities, O. corymbosa showed specific activity in two breast (SKBR3, MB231) and gastric (SNU484) cancer cell lines. Study presented the first high-quality genome for the Oldenlandia genus, and characterized the mode of action of the main active compound - ursolic acid. Ursolic acid causes mitotic catastrophe in cancer cells and identified three high-confidence protein binding targets by CETSA and reverse docking. Results provide valuable resource to further characterize the biosynthesis of active metabolites in the Oldenlandia group, while the mode of action of ursolic acid will allow to further develop the valuable compound. (47)
• Anthelmintic / Antibacterial / Whole Plant: A flavonoid fraction of ethanolic extract of whole plant exhibited antibacterial activity against 15 bacterial strains of different genera. Micrococcus lutea and Salmonella typhi 7652 showed inhibition at lowest concentration (25 µg/ml). The extract showed anthelmintic activity against aquarium worm, Tubifex tubifex, comparable to reference drug piperazine citrate at 80 mg/ml. (48)
• Comparative Study: O. corymbosa and Ocimum sanctum: Comparative study evaluated 70% ethanol extracts of leaves of Oldenlandia corymbosa and Ocimum sanctum for antioxidant and pharmacological effects. Phytochemical screening of O. corymbosa revealed polyphenols, flavonoids, carbohydrate, reducing sugars, tannins, anthocyanins, and proteins, with absence of cardiac glycosides, quinones, and alkaloids. Comparatively, it showed higher amounts of tannins, alkaloids and proteins, and higher in vitro antibacterial and antidiabetic properties. O. corymbosa showed maximum inhibition % of
α-amylase at 72.81%. IC50s in mg/ml were 4.50 for O. corymbosa, 3.55 for acarbose, and 5.21 for O. sanctum. OC also showed higher zones of inhibition against E. coli and S. aureus at 24 mm and 16 mm respectively. (49)
• Fatty Acid Derivative Potential Against K. pneumonia and MCF Cell Lines: GC-MS study screened the methanol extracted fatty acid derivative of O. corymbosa and evaluated it for antioxidant, antibacterial, and anticancer potential. A methanol fraction showed antibacterial effect on K. pneumonia (ZOI 16 mm), with no effect on E. coli, S. typhi, and S. aureus. The methanol Fx also showed maximum antioxidant property with IUC50 of 0.38 mg/ml. It also showed high anticancer activity on MCF-7 cell line with IC50 of 0.27 mg/ml. Major constituents in the compound were methyl stearate (126.62%), methyl palmitate (14.53%), 1,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid (6.61%), trans2-nonadecene (5.55%), among others. (50)
• Diuretic Acid / Acute Toxicity Test: Study evaluated the acute toxicity and diuretic activity of dried powder sample of O. corymbosa extracted with 70% ethanol in albino mice. Results showed no acute toxic effect with maximum permissible dose of 16g/kbw, with a medium lethal dose > 16g/kbw. After a 6g/kbw dose of 70% extract , there was significant increase in sodium and potassium excretion (p<0.05 - 0.0005), with significant urinary and potassium excretion. Results suggest potential for use as diuretic in edematous patients. (51)
• Anti-Inflammatory / Radical Scavenging: Study evaluated the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity of crude dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, and methanol extracts from O. corymbosa. Anti-inflammatory properties were evaluated in vitro with RBC membrane stabilization method and protein denaturation method and in-vivo with carrageenan-induced paw edema method. Radical scavenging activity was evaluated by DPPH, total antioxidant activity and iron reduction assay. Results showed both in vivo and in vitro studies exhibited significant effects with 80.5% for RBC membrane stabilization, 60% for inhibition of protein denaturation at 1000 µg/mL, and 63.28% for inhibition of paw edema. Extracts showed scavenging activity in all methods with IC50 of 473.86 µg/mL for DPPH. Results showed strong anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects that validate traditional use for treatment of pain. (53)
Availability
Wild-crafted.
Herbs, powders, extracts, ointments in the cybermarket.
|
.
